A Critical Evaluation of The Value of Play Essay Example for Free

A Critical Evaluation of The Value of Play Essay Introduction Play has a vital role in a child’s learning and development. Each adult has their own interpretation of what play is, but play can be interpreted as, ‘children being given the opportunity to use resources and facilities provided in order to develop their skills and expand their knowledge. This can be done spontaneously through imaginative play, and using communication to enhance their independent learning. Play can also be seen as a way a child learns and develops emotionally, physically and socially. DEFINITIONS OF PLAY What is play? Play can be interpreted as, children being given the opportunity to use their imaginative skills, to learn as well as develop their physical, social, emotional and cognitive skills. Play can be child initiated, or adult led, where they provided with resources and support in both situations. Play is an attitude that manifests itself in different behaviours. Gavey (1991) stated â€Å"play was a forward and backwaref 7cd movement where different levels of action, communication, and interaction are needed. It could be regarded as deeply serious and purposeful or trivial and purposeless, (Attfiled 2005). Similarly, (Molyes J) stated â€Å"play is without a doubt the most natural way children learn all over the world†. Babies and young children learn through interaction with an adult, who could be parents, siblings, other family members as well as practitioners who have responsibility of looking after the well-being of a child. However, Froebel stated, play is what children are involved with when they initiate a task and work is what they do when fulfil a task required by an adult. Bruce 2005. The role of an adult is entering a child play that is child initiated, and intervening to extend the play without interfering. Bruce Children need to play with objects and materials and resources in order for play to integrate cognitive processes and stimulate the imagination. The value of play Play is seen as the â€Å"only† way that young children learn and develop their social, physical, cognitive and emotional skills. Bruce(2005) Value of play A practitioner who understands the importance of play, offers children  freedom, where they are able to choose their own activities. * Gives a child freedom * Responsibilities * Child initiated * Adult led * Risks * Consequences Child initiated play Child initiated play can be interpreted as any activity that is started by a child to meet their personal needs and interests, Moyles J (2008). This can alos be seen as active learning, where the childis engaging in the activity they are doing. Bruner argued and put forward children require choice and should be able to make their own decisions in order to learn and develop their skills. For example in a reception class where children are of the age 4-5 years, being given the freedom of being able to choose any activity available to them and to carry out their chosen task or activity in their choice of environment can be seen as child initaitiated play. The adult has no role in the choice of play as the child has the control of what they are setting out to do. However the adult provides the child with resouces. Through child initaied play children learn to become creative through critical thinking. When having achoen an activity to arry out they start to make cnectuoins which transfroms their understanding. Howevr if a child does not understand or have the skill to carry out an activity and feels they want to, they tend to approach an adult who then supports the child by interevening. (BRUCE) the adult can then support the child by scaffolding (BRUNER) for example Similary Vygotakys stated in his theory a childs needs to be independent in order to learn, however a child still requires the adult to present to aide them when needed. For example. By allowing a child the choice of free play they are able to explore DEFINITION By investigating childen learn and are able to ask the adult questions where the adult will support them by asking open eneded question and providing them with encouragement.

DNA Tranlession Polymerase in Prokaryotic Cells

DNA Tranlession Polymerase in Prokaryotic Cells DNA Tranlession Polymerase in prokaryotic cells: History, structures and function Soheil Malekpour DNA is one of the most important part of the cell that gives cell integrity and character. This part of the cell can be exposed to different kinds of damages that may put the cells integrity in jeopardy. The only part of the cell that has this ability to be repaired is DNA. Basically repairing should be done due to a reasonable reason. Repairing the other macromolecules are not profitable. For example, if a defective protein forms, the protein can be simply be replaced by another one. But defects in DNA can cause problem in the whole cell organisms and the character of cell [1]. Usually the whole repairing process is happening fast, although there are defects that persist against this process. The repairing process is done by special polymerases and the whole process of DNA repair is called translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) [2]. DNA can be damaged due to different reasons, such as base modification, elimination or addition of nucleotides, crosslinking of DNA strands and breakage of phosphodiester backbone [1]. These reasons can be due to some environmental conditions such as radiation or insertion of certain chemicals in to the body or due to malfunction of polymerases and enzymes in cellular process, such as putting wrong nucleotide in the DNA strand chain [1]. Up to now, it is known that there are three translesion DNA polymerases (TLS polymerases) in E. coli and about fifteen polymerases in eukaryotes that can run this process [2]. History For the first time it was in the early 1940s, that it was found agents causing mutational changes such as ionizing and radiation of UV, interact with cells and can damage their genome [3]. Also it was found that these cells can survive and recover from theses damages [4] and the term DNA repair was found. DNA repair is a biochemical term that defines biological processes during which alterations in the chemistry of DNA (DNA damage) are removed and the integrity of the genome is restored [3]. The first DNA repair mechanism to be discovered was enzymatic photo reactivation (EPR) [3]. This process is referred to the elimination of cyclobutane pyrimidine, which are generated by UV radiation and can block both DNA replication and transcription, from the genome [4]. This reaction can be catalyzed by photoreactivating enzyme in a reaction that needs a visible range light. The second mechanism found was excision repair [3]. This mechanism is referred to DNA damages cut out from genome that leaves some gaps in DNA duplex. These gaps are repaired by a non-semiconservative mode of DNA synthesis called repair synthesis [5]. By the end of the 1970s, it was known that cells are using various mechanisms for DNA repair process that focus around two basic principles: the excision of base damage or its direct reversal such as EPR [3]. In the mid1970s Miroslav Radman proposed a new hypothesis called SOS hypothesis [5, 6]. TheSOS hypothesis proposes an overall response to DNA damage in which thecell cycleis stopped andDNA repairis induced. Genetics experiments demonstrated that main players involved in damage-induced mutagenesis are lexA, recA along with umuD and umuC [2]. LexA cleavage from recA* and also umuD cleavage that form umuD use the same mechanism and is an absolute requirement for SOS mutagenesis. For showing that, E. coli because of its simple structure was used as a model for translesion DNA synthesis and mutagenesis. Later Harrison Echols proposed another model and suggested that in order to help the replication process against the lesions it is possible to reduce the fidelity of proteins so when DNA replication process is stopped at a location of unrepaired DNA damage, certain SOS-regulated genes can encode proteins that interact with the hindered replication process in a manner that reduces their fidelity [3]. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was demonstrated that Echols genes are in fact specialized low-fidelity DNA polymerases that enhance low-fidelity replication across the lesion, the so-called translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) [3]. Their highly reduced fidelity allows the replicative bypass of sites of DNA damage, but with a high chance of combining incorrect nucleotides [5]. Early TLS models and PolV Bridges and Woodgate were the first ones who defined the function of Umu proteins during UV-induced TLS in 1985 [7]. According to them, TLS happened in two steps. In the first step Pol III add a nucleotide opposite the first (3†²) T of a T-T cytidine diphosphate diacylgelycerol (CPD). Bounding a RecA protein to the template proximal to the lesion is a requirement for this step. In the second step, Pol III interacts with UmuDC proteins to incorporate another nucleotide at the second (5†²) T of the cytidine diphosphate diacylgelycerol (CPD). At least one of these two steps are non-WC, causing a mutation targeted at the site of the CPD [2]. Figure 1 shows the process schematically. Another model was proposed by Echols and Goodman in 1990 [3]. In this model they proposed that when Pol III encounters a template lesion, its holoenzymes (Pol III core, beta sliding clamp, gamma-clamp-loading complex) are completely blocked. This process follows by the assembly of a damage localized nucleoprotein complex involving RecA, UmuC, UmuD†², SSB, and Pol III holoenzyme, a mutasome, to copy past a template lesion [2]. The fact that RecA* simplifies the cleavage of UmuD to UmuD was used in this model [8]. Later, it was demonstrated that it was actually a dimeric UmuD2 that is cleaved to UmuD2 and that next interacts with UmuC to form a stable complex of UmuD2C [9]. This complex was named as Pol V in 1999 by Tang et al. [10]. It can be said that genome replication done on undamaged DNA by Pol III is rapid and error-free [11], the TLS process carried out by mutasome is slow and error-prone [2]. A key feature of the mutasome model is the assembly of RecA* on ssDNA proximal to the lesion (Fig. 1). When a replication fork encounters a lesion, an uncoupling of leading-and lagging-strand synthesis may ensue. Then, one of the TLS Pols can replace Pol III on the ÃŽ ²- clamp and copy the damaged DNA [2]. For both leading and lagging strands it be easily seen that RecA* can be assembled on the form of template strand, proximal to lesion. If the lesion occurred in the leading strand, RecA filaments can be formed on a region of ssDNA that is created by DNA unwinding by DnaB helicase downstream from the lesion but if lesions exist in lagging strand ssDNA is present as a result of Okazaki fragment synthesis [2]. Schlacher and Goodman [12] showed RecA* act in trans form on a non-template ssDNA strand and this transactivation of PolV by RecA* to perform TLS happens in-vitro. And this lead to the PolV mutasome model of TLS (Fig. 1). Jiang et al. [13] demonstrated this new PolV form as PolV Mut = UmuD2C-RecA-ATP. PolV Mut has this ability to copy both damaged and undamaged DNA (e.g. performs TLS) when RecA* is not present [2]. So, the straight role of RecA* in SOS-mediated TLS is to transfer a RecA molecule from the 3†²-filament tip with a molecule of ATP to convert into Pol V Mut, that can cross a different number of DNA lesions on its own. (Fig. 1) [2, 14]. PolV Mut can have two conformations. One is activated form that can copy DNA, the other one is deactivated form that is unable to copy the DNA. The activation of PolV Mut is depended on the location of RecA-ATP bond to the polymerase subunits UmuD2 and UmuC [13]. By representing the RecA* again, the deactivated form of PolV Mut can be activated. In this case, the old RecA-ATP is substituted by a new RecA-ATP from the 3-filament tip [13]. This type of switching on and off is unique to this kind of polymerase and has not been seen in other types of polymerases. This method can be useful specially preventing the undamaged DNA to go under mutation in E.Coli, and give the cell this power to activate Pol V Mut whenever replication fork have stuck at DNA template damage site [2]. PolII and PolIV in E.Coli TLS PolII discovered in 1970[15]. At first, it was thought that mutation is non-informative in PolII [16]. Pol II has an activity isolated from UV-irradiated cells that has this ability to replicate past abasic template lesions [2, 17]. This polymerase has some responses to UV radiation and this activity derives from that [2]. By purification it was proved that the induced lesion-copying protein was Pol II [17]. In 1980, Kenyon and Walker [18] discovered a DNA damage-inducible gene called dinA that can encode PolII. Also, one of the features of PolII is bypassing N2-deoxyguanosine-acetyl aminofluorene (AAF) adducts, this behavior can be error-free and produces 2-frame shift mutations [19]. AAF adducts are of family of aromatic amides that induce frame shift mutations within GpC sequences, such as the NarI sequences [19]. These adducts are able to increase the GC dinucleotide loss in NarI sequence (CGCGCC) by 107 times when they are bound to the G in middle of sequence [20]. PolII and Pol V can complement each other, but it does not mean that their activities are functionally unneeded [21]. As Pham et al. [21] mentioned PolV job is to copy UV-damaged DNA in an error-prone manner in TLS. But Pol II is able to copy chromosomal DNA in an error-free replication process. Kenyon and walker also introduced another gene called dinB gene that can be induced by cellular SOS response to DNA damage [18]. For many years, the function of this gene was unknown. After some year Ohmori et al. [22] found other gene, dinP gene, in the same section that dinB gene was found and Wagner et al. showed that they are able to encode Y-family DNA PolIV [23]. This kind of polymerases like other polymerases used in TLS are not crucial for life. Their role is to bypass certain N2-dG adducts (such as N2-furfuryl-dG) in an error-free manner [2]. Kumari et al. demonstrated they can copy past N2-N2-guanine interstrand cross-links in a high fidelity manner [24]. Regulation of TLS polymerases Different polymerases have this ability to traverse an extensive range of DNA lesions but this ability may cause in reducing the fidelity during replicating the undamaged DNA. Usually cells have several mechanisms to check and control the TLS polymerases because except PolII, all of them has this potential to delete errors made when duplicating an undamaged DNA [2]. Usually no regulation is needed for PolII. Because it has high fidelity derived by high intrinsic 3-5 exonucleolytic proofreading. On the other hand, the Y-family polymerases such as PolIV and PolV are exo-nuclease deficient and needed to be controlled [2]. PolV activity can be regulated by many proteins and many ways. First as said before the UmuD should be activated by UmuD. All UmuD, UmuC and UmuD proteins are all exposed to degradation by Lon and ClpXP protease. RecA* that forms PolV Mut can interact with UmuD2C complexes and active them. The PolV Mut itself activity can be enhanced by binding to the ÃŽ ²-clamp [2]. As Wagner et al. showed the PolIV activity can be stimulated by protein interaction with RecA, UmuD and ÃŽ ²-clamp [25]. Although the main mechanisms of DNA repair by various polymerases are known now, more studies can be conducted on E.Coli cells to find more details about the regulation and side reactions happening in this process. E.Coli cells as simple cells are an appropriate model to analyze these functions. Jarosz et al. proposed well questions about the future studies on Y-family DNA polymerases [26]: (1)How do Y-family polymerases gain access to an appropriate primer terminus and how is their action coordinated with that of replicative polymerases? (2)How do protein–protein interactions regulate the activity of Y-family polymerases? (3)Are there families of cognate lesions for each different Y-family polymerase? (4) Can mutations introduced by Y-family polymerases be corrected by exonucleolytic proofreading in trans? Different polymerases act in different paces after the damaged. For example PolII is induced immediately after DNA damage but PolV is induced about 50 min after the damage [21]. An area of interest could be study on how they can be regulated to be induced in shorter time. References Horton, R. H., Moran, L. A., Perry, M. D., Rawn, D. J. and Scrimgeour, G. K. (2006)Principles of biochemistry. 4th edn. United States: Pearson Education (US). Goodman, M. F. and Woodgate, R. (2013) ‘Translesion DNA Polymerases’,Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 5(10). doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a010363. Friedberg, E. C. (2008) ‘A brief history of the DNA repair field’,Cell Research, 18(1), pp. 3–7. doi: 10.1038/cr.2007.113. Hollaender, A. and Duggar, B. M. (1938) ‘The effects of sublethal doses of monochromatic ultraviolet radiation on the growth properties of bacteria’,Journal of Bacteriology, 36(1): 17-37. Friedberg EC, Walker GC, Siede W, Wood RD, Schultz RA, Ellenberger T. DNA Repair and Mutagenesis. Washington DC, ASM Press, 2005 Friedberg EC. Correcting the Blueprint of Life. An Historical Accounting of the Discovery DNA Repairing Mechanisms. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1997. Ruiz-Rubio, M., Woodgate, R., Bridges, B. A., Herrera, G. and Blanco, M. (1986) ‘New Role for Photoreversible Pyrimidine Dimers in Induction of Prototrophic Mutations in Excision-Deficient Escherichia coli by UV Light’,Journal of Bacteriology, 166(3): 1141-1143. Burckhardt, S. E., Woodgate, R., Scheuermann, R. H. and Echols, H. (1988) ‘UmuD mutagenesis protein of Escherichia coli: overproduction, purification, and cleavage by RecA.’,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 85(6), pp. 1811–1815. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.6.1811. Woodgate, R., Rajagopalan, M., Lu, C. and Echols, H. (1989) ‘UmuC mutagenesis protein of Escherichia coli: purification and interaction with UmuD and UmuD’,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 86(19), pp. 7301–7305. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.19.7301. Tang M, Shen X, Frank EG, O’Donnell M, Woodgate R, Goodman MF. UmuD2†²C is an error-prone DNA polymerase, Escherichia coli, DNA pol V. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1999; 96:8919–8924. Johnson A, O’Donnell M. Cellular DNA replicases: Components and dynamics at the replication fork. Annu Rev Biochem. 2005; 74:283–315 Schlacher K, Goodman MF. Lessons from 50 years of SOS DNA-damage-induced mutagenesis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2007; 8:587–594 Jiang Q, Karata K, Woodgate R, Cox MM, Goodman MF. The active form of DNA polymerase V is UmuD2†²C-RecA-ATP. Nature. 2009; 460:359–363. Dutreix M, Moreau PL, Bailone A, Galibert F, Battista JR, Walker GC, Devoret R. New recA mutations that dissociate the various RecA protein activities in Escherichia coli provide evidence for an additional role for RecA protein in UV mutagenesis. J Bacteriol. 1989; 171:2415–2423. Knippers R. DNA polymerase II. Nature. 1970; 228:1050–1053. Foster PL, Gudmundsson G, Trimarchi JM, Cai H, Goodman MF. Proofreading-defective DNA polymerase II increases adaptive mutation in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1995; 92:7951–7955. Bonner CA, Randall SK, Rayssiguier C, Radman M, Eritja R, Kaplan BE, McEntee K, Goodman MF. Purification and characterization of an inducible Escherichia coli DNA polymerase capable of insertion and bypass at abasic lesions in DNA. J Biol Chem. 1988; 263:18946–18952. Kenyon CJ, Walker GC. DNA-damaging agents stimulate gene expression at specific loci in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1980; 77:2819–2823. Napolitano, R., Janel-Bintz, R., Wagner, J. and Fuchs, R. P. P. (2000)All three SOS-inducible DNA polymerases (Pol II,Pol IV and Pol V) are involved in induced mutagenesis, The EMBO Journal, 19(29), pp. 6259-6265. Koffel-Schwartz, N., Verdier, J.-M., Bichara, M., Freund, A.-M., Daune, M. P. and Fuchs, R. P. P. (1984) ‘Carcinogen-induced mutation spectrum in wild-type, uvrA and umuC strains of Escherichia coli’,Journal of Molecular Biology, 177(1), pp. 33–51 Pham, P., Rangarajan, S., Woodgate, R. and Goodman, M. F. (2001) ‘Roles of DNA polymerases V and II in SOS-induced error-prone and error-free repair in Escherichia coli’,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(15), pp. 8350–8354. Ohmori H, Hatada E, Qiao Y, Tsuji M, Fukuda R. dinP, a new gene in Escherichia coli, whose product shows similarities to UmuC and its homologues. Mutat Res. 1995; 347:1-7. Wagner J, Gruz P, Kim SR, Yamada M, Matsui K, Fuchs RPP, Nohmi T. The dinB gene encodes a novel Escherichia coli DNA polymerase, DNA Pol IV, involved in mutagenesis. Mol Cell. 1999; 4:281–286. Kumari A, Minko IG, Harbut MB, Finkel SE, Goodman MF, Lloyd RS. Replication bypass of interstrand cross-link intermediates by Escherichia coli DNA polymerase IV. J Biol Chem. 2008; 283:27433–27437. Wagner J, Fujii S, Gruz P, Nohmi T, Fuchs RP. The ÃŽ ² clamp targets DNA polymerase IV to DNA and strongly increases its processivity. EMBO Rep. 2001; 1:484–488. Jarosz, D. F., Beuning, P. J., Cohen, S. E. and Walker, G. C. (2007) ‘Y-family DNA polymerases in Escherichia coli’,Trends in Microbiology, 15(2), pp. 70–77.

Afghanistan- A Country in Distress Essay -- essays research papers

Afghanistan- A Country in Distress Afghanistan, a country located in South Asia just east of Iran whose population is 28,513,677, is one of the countries that I chose to address. Their government is under Transitional Authority which is in a state of unrest as national elections would formally dissolve this system and adapt or establish the Government of Afghanistan under a new constitution. The country like others in the Middle East suffers from enormous poverty and a few other problems to include the lack of skilled and educated workers, which also has such a grave effect on most other countries. The lack of is more than likely what lies beneath the country’s poverty. If people aren’t educated or don’t have the knowledge to perform certain tasks then this definitely causes a problem with employment issues. Not only does the country have problems as these but they are also plagued by the crumbling infrastructure and land mines which hinder the expansion or opening of more companies, so there are definite geographical issues as well. One of the main economic concerns that I would like to make mention of is the poverty rate and problem with employment. Although the rate of unemployment is zero the lack of skilled and educated people could lead to possible unemployment as the job market calls for education and skill. With these factors in mind we think of the reasoning behind the poverty; if most of the labor force are uneducated and unskilled then the rate of pay isn’t very... Afghanistan- A Country in Distress Essay -- essays research papers Afghanistan- A Country in Distress Afghanistan, a country located in South Asia just east of Iran whose population is 28,513,677, is one of the countries that I chose to address. Their government is under Transitional Authority which is in a state of unrest as national elections would formally dissolve this system and adapt or establish the Government of Afghanistan under a new constitution. The country like others in the Middle East suffers from enormous poverty and a few other problems to include the lack of skilled and educated workers, which also has such a grave effect on most other countries. The lack of is more than likely what lies beneath the country’s poverty. If people aren’t educated or don’t have the knowledge to perform certain tasks then this definitely causes a problem with employment issues. Not only does the country have problems as these but they are also plagued by the crumbling infrastructure and land mines which hinder the expansion or opening of more companies, so there are definite geographical issues as well. One of the main economic concerns that I would like to make mention of is the poverty rate and problem with employment. Although the rate of unemployment is zero the lack of skilled and educated people could lead to possible unemployment as the job market calls for education and skill. With these factors in mind we think of the reasoning behind the poverty; if most of the labor force are uneducated and unskilled then the rate of pay isn’t very...

My Name Is Asher Lev Essay example -- essays research papers

Asher Lev Essay: Minor characters are central to our understanding of any text. Analyse their significance in My Name Is Asher Lev. Central to our understanding of â€Å"My name is Asher Lev† by Chaim Potok, is the dynamics of Asher’s relationship with different minor characters involved. Each minor character such as Yudel Krinsky, Uncle Yitzchok, the Rebbe, and Jacob Kahn each help Asher in a different way allowing the reader to interpret the text more thoroughly. Their guidance to the antagonist creates a vivid image inside the reader’s mind of the type of character and their importance to our understanding of the text. Each minor character listed has a deep impact on the resolution of Asher Lev  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Yudel Krinsky is a Russian Jew from Siberia, in Russia. When he arrives in Brooklyn he is very grateful towards Asher’s father. â€Å"Did you know Asher that your father is an angel of God?† he says. When Asher first meets Yudel Krinsky his curiosity about Serbia and Yudel Krinsky begins. This curiosity soon makes him ask more and more questions about Yudel. â€Å"We saw a Jew from Russia,† he says to Mrs. Rackover. When asked about Siberia Mrs. Rackover replies, â€Å"What is Siberia? It is a land like the inside of this refrigerator. It is a land of ice and darkness where the Russian government sends people it hates. What is Siberia? No-one should know of it.† This gives a good impression to the reader the torment and struggle Yudel must have felt when living in Siberia. Asher of course does not view this information lightly and wishes to seek more answers about Yudel and Russian Jews. â€Å"The son of Reb Aryeh Lev,† is the name Asher is referred to during the beginning journeys of to Yudel’s store. It is important to note he is called the son of Aryeh Lev because they don’t really know each other but later called ‘Asher’. On the first encounter Asher does not ask Yudel any questions. On the second encounter though Asher begins to ask Yudel questions relating to the news in Russia and the relationship between Yudel and Asher begins to bloom like a rose bud. On the next encounters to Yudel’s store, Yudel starts addressing Asher as ‘Asher’ and not ‘the son of Aryeh Lev’. Asher seems almost attracted to the store and is mesmerized by the metal glass showcase of oils and paints. When Asher steals the oils because he can’t afford them, Yudel starts nurturi... ...en’t for Jacob’s significant contribution by offering Asher help and criticism Asher would have never prospered as a great painter. Throughout the text â€Å"My name is Asher Lev† by Chaim Potok, minor characters of Jacob Kahn, the Rebbe, Uncle Yitzchok and Yudel Krinsky are central to our understanding of the text. Each character plays a significant part in the artistic progress of Asher Lev and allows him to reach a level of artistic talent at a young age. Their description and techniques used to describe them help the reader interpret the text thoroughly as they have an understanding of the type of character. Each minor character is as vital as the other as without one character Asher may not have been able to accomplish his great feats. Their contributions to Asher through either materials or advice are essential for Asher to establish himself as a great painter. Each character’s actions helping Asher succeed and also attributes to the tension created between themselves and Aryeh Lev which eventually results in the downfall of the Lev household. The minor characters are in essence the key to our understanding as each evaluates Asher’s feelings, emotions, and frustrations of art.

Neural Networks Essay -- Artificial Intelligence Technology

Neural Networks Abstract This paper will provide an introductory level discussion of neural networks within the field of artificial intelligence. This discussion will briefly cover the history of the neural network as well as recent advances within this field. In addition, several real world applications of neural networks will be discussed. Introduction The primary goal in the field of artificial intelligence is to construct a machine with an intellect comparable to that of a human. This pursuit of an artificial intelligence has had a long history. Several different approaches have been attempted as a result of this goal. In particular, the study of neural networks has evolved from this pursuit for an intelligent machine. The field of neural networks involves a new approach to computing that uses mathematical structures with the ability to learn (Zsolutions). These methods were inspired by investigations into modeling nervous system learning (Zsolutions). For example, neurons in the human brain are used to transmit data back and forth to each other. Artificial neural networks use this same technique to process various kinds of information (Fu, p 4). There are a wide variety of applications in which neural networks can be utilized. Primarily, they should be used in areas where standard techniques fail to give satisfactory results (Zsolutions). Neural networks are applied best in situations where information needs to be determined faster and with more efficiency. In addition, neural networks outperform other artificial intelligence approaches in areas where more detail can be learned from inputted data (Zsolutions). Discussion The technology of neural networks has been in existence for approximately forty years ... ...dapt as more data is input into the network. The recent advances within the field of neural networks are just beginning of what may potentially become the solution to creating a truly intelligent machine. The success that neural networks have had in the few areas that have implemented it should be enough to make others realize the strength of a neural network. As neural networks grow in popularity, so too will the advancements in the field. In my opinion, neural networks will eventually be the driving force behind all artificial intelligence attempts. Bibliography 1. Fu, Limin. Neural Networks In Computer Intelligence. McGraw-Hill Inc. 1994. 2. http://www.cio.com/archive/cio_011596_neural_feature.html 3. http://www.inc.com/beyondthemag/between_the_pages/neural.html 4. http://www.merlin.com.au/brain_proj/neur_net.htm 5. http://www.zsolutions.com/

Case review natalie

Do you think this Is his/her primary problem? Why or why not? Presenting problems: Natalie came In for â€Å"concerns about her boyfriend, Larry Watkins, over the past six months†. She reported that she has â€Å"been so upset that she hasn't been able to function at work and her coworkers told her she needs to get some help†. No, this is not her primary problem.Client stated that she felt so depressed and empty that she didn't think she could stand it and also notes that she hates herself. Client additionally indicated â€Å"there's Just nothing worth living for and I hate everyone and everything† Furthermore, she specified how she's been suicidal and felt worthless and hopeless and Just wants to end it all and in fact indicates she has a history of attempts. She also noted that she was having financial difficulties. And of course as we know has BAD. . What are some of his/her strengths? Natalie Is a college graduate, has a Job as an administrative assistant, ap pears to be able to convey her feelings in an (at least somewhat) articulate manner, so far has been open and honest to our knowledge, ND realizes she needs assistance and Is willing to get help. 3. What potential diagnoses would you want to rule out in this case? Mood disorder – depression or possibly manic depression (bi-polar) and other personality disorders. 4.What resources might be helpful for him/her to access? Suicide hotlist, some type of self-help meetings, employment services, medical doctor, family therapist or another therapist besides you, and/or psychiatrist. 5. What Is your preliminary diagnosis for helm/her? A. Borderline personality Disorder (BAD) 301. 83 (OFF. 3) b. NOSE unspecified personality Disorder 301. (OFF. 9) c. ROI unspecified Depressive Disorder 296. 20 (82. 9) or 296. 30 (OFF. 9) d. ROI suicidal Behavior Disorder (not yet coded) e.Frequent use of devaluation f. Frequent use of passive aggression g. Frequent use of displacement h. Frequent use of splitting B. SECT. II a. VIA NO/DXL b. As stated by client she was In a car accident and totaled her car. C. Refer to a physician for complete physical. A. ZOO. O Relationship distress with spouse or intimate partner b. ZOO. 5 Personal history of self-harm c. VIA. 2 Low income d. VIA. 20 Parent-child relational problem D. SECT. A. HOWDAHS

Carl Jung’s Theory Essay

Carl Jung tackled personality and ‘psychological types’ (also referred to as Jung’s psychological types) from a perspective of clinical psychoanalysis. He was one of only a handful of psychologists in his era to maintain that development is never unchanging, but in fact actually grows through childhood, adolescence, mid-life and into old age. He concentrated on establishing and developing a relationship between conscious and unconscious processes. Jung believed that there was a interchange between the conscious and unconscious and without it the unconscious processes could weaken and possibly endanger the personality and this is seen in one of his central concepts of individuation. He believed that individuation is a continuous process of personal development that involves founding a connection between the ego and the self and that it could be brought to its highest realisation if worked with and the unconscious was confronted. Jung, (as did Freud) , referred to the ego when explaining the more conscious aspect of personality. However he (unlike Freud) thought the unconscious side of the personality was equal in status, and complimentary to that of  the conscious. He referred to the integrated personality as Self; the centre of the total psyche, incorporating both the conscious and the unconscious. The Self includes all of a person’s qualities and potentials whether or not they become apparent at a particular stage of life. Therefore the goal of therapy is to guide the client to become a whole a human being as personal circumstances will allow. It was from Jung’s confrontation with the unconscious, in himself and his patients, that he gradually elaborated his psychology. His book Psychological Types (1921) worked as the compass by which he tried to understand how he differed from both Freud and Adler, but more importantly, could begin to chart the internal world of people. He considered spirituality a central part of the human journey (indeed there is a whole literature relating Jungian psychology and spirituality, primarily from a Christian perspective) and had a deep appreciation of creative life. Jung’s description of personality states that in order to identify a psychological type it is necessary to discover whether a person is oriented primarily toward his inner world Introversion or toward external reality Extroversion. These were known as the fundamental attitude of the individual to emphasise its importance: Introverts Are people who prefer their internal world of thoughts, feelings, fantasies, dreams, and so on. Extroverts These people prefer the external world of things and people and activities. In todays world these words have become confused with ideas like shyness and sociability, partially because introverts tend to be shy and extroverts tend to be sociable. But Jung intended for them to refer more to whether you (â€Å"ego†) more often faced toward the persona and outer reality, or toward the collective unconscious and its archetypes. In that sense, the introvert is  somewhat more mature than the extrovert. Our culture, of course, values the extrovert much more. Jung warned that we all tend to value our own type most, This reality is still applicable to therapists today as it is important not to allow personal feelings to take place when working with clients. Both introvert and extravert overrate their strengths and each of them tends to undervalue the other. To the extravert, the introvert seems egotistical and dull, and to the introvert, the extravert appears superficial and insincere. Jung believed that a person remained an extravert or introvert without change for the whole of his life, and that heredity determines whether the libido is directed inward or outward. Whether a person is an introvert or extrovert they need to deal with both their inner and outer world. And each has their preferred way of dealing with it, ways which they are comfortable with and good at. This hypothesised stability of the introversion-extroversion trait is consistent with empircal research using Non-Jungian measures of introversion and extraversion. We now find the introvert-extravert dimension in several theories, notably Hans Eysenck’s. :- Eysenck (1916 – 1997) In Eysenck’s view people are biosocial animals and that psychology stands at the crossroads of biological sciences and social sciences. He states that psychology must become more of a true science with methodology in all that the therapist does in order to permit personality theorists to make predictions that can be tested and therefore make possible the development of the causal theory of personality, which he believes will inevitably help the therapist with clients presenting problems. Eysenck believed that from a scientific angle, Jung’s contribution to the study of personality types had been largely negative as he permitted mystical notions to override empirical data and sought to go beyond descriptive analysis to the causal analysis of personality. Eysenck went on  to review the theories and came to the conclusion that most people fall somewhere between the middle of the two extremes of those whose emotions are liable and easily aroused and those who are stable and less easily aroused. He suggested that the basic dimensions of personality may be summarised as shown in.(Figure 2) below (Figure 2) Further work by Eysenck tied personality differences to visceral brain activity and he showed that because introverts have sensitive nervous systems they are more easily conditioned and that also makes them more vulnerable to anxiety based neuroses if the visceral brain activity is high, whereas the extravert has a less sensitive and more inhibited cortical process and therefore are slow to develop conditioned response. Because socialized behavior depends on a well conditioned response in childhood extraverts were more likely to develop psychopathic disorders if their visceral brain activity is high. This theory is hypthetical and Eysenck realized that his hypothesis â€Å"must stand and fall by empirical confirmation† (1965) Despite his scientific data Eysenck, like Jung, advocated that human behaviour has both biological and social causes but that there is a strong genetic component. Perhaps therapists could look at the behaviour and traits of a client’s close family when working with them in order to better understand the â€Å"nature/nurture debate† Jung associated the conscious part of the psyche (ego) to an island that rises out of the sea. We notice only the part above the water, even though there is a greater land mass below the water – much like an iceberg, the unconscious lies below. The personal unconscious is a reservoir of experience unique to each individual consisting of perceptions, thoughts, feelings and memories that have been put to one side or repressed but not always covered by sea and therefore can be reclaimed. Whereas the personal unconscious is unique to every individual, the collective unconscious is shared or â€Å"transpersonal† and consists of certain potentialities that we all  share because of our human nature, because we all live in groups and in some form of society or family life. He believed that the collective unconscious did not develop individually but was inherited and consisted of pre- existent forms, the archetypes. An archetype is a universal thought form or predisposition to respond to the world in certain ways and is crucial to Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious because it emphasises potentialities in which we may express our humanness. He believed that they appeared to us in dreams, art, ritual, myths and symptoms. Jung suggested that people tend to develop two functions, usually one rational function Jung suggested that people tend to develop two functions, usually one Rational functionand one Irrational function. There are four basic ways, or psychological functions which are thinking, feeling, sensation or intuition; one of these becomes the primary or dominant function and the other the auxiliary function. (See Figure 3) on next page. Jung’s Four Psychological Functions Figure 3 Therefore it is unusual to find thinking and feeling sensation and intuition, develop in the same person. The dominant function is directed toward external reality if the person is an extravert, or toward the inner world if the person in an introvert. The rational functions of thinking and feeling can be conceived as a pair of opposites as can the irrational functions of sensation and intuition. The extraverted thinking sensation type would have an introverted feeling-intuitive shadow and vice-versa. (See Figure 4 below) Thinking Thinking EXTRAVERSION EXTRAVERSION CONSCIOUSNESS CONSCIOUSNESS INTROVERSION INTROVERSION SHADOW SHADOW Feeling Feeling Fig 5. Adapted from Cloniger (2000b) and Engler (1999 These eight psychetypes are useful in giving the therapist a more complete picture of the client’s personality and help to identify the function that the individual uses for dealing with the less preferred direction, known as the auxiliary function. Jung cautioned that types rarely occur in a pure form and that there is a wide range of variation within each type, that people of a specific type may change as their personal collective unconscious changes in response to external or indeed internal influences which will motivate the individual to seek change in their lives. The therapist needs to be aware of that every client responds differently. Jung viewed emotional disturbance as a person’s attempt to reconcile the contradictory aspects of personality. One side of the psyche, such as the conscious, adaptive, social persona, may be exaggerated at the expense of the darker, unconscious aspects, the shadow side :- Example:- The Extraverted sensation types who may appear to be superficial and soulless and actively seek thrills and distractions but have a shadow side of intuition which when activated by an inner event will gives rise to negative hunches that are way off beam and may manifest as paranoid or hostile behaviour for no apparent reason. (Stevens 1994b Critics of Jung A criticism of Jung’s theory was his lack of empirical research in which his theory has been attacked as being â€Å"non-falsifiable and unscientific† (Herenhahn. 994 p.33) Jung based his psychology on explorations of his own inner world, as well as his work with people ranging from â€Å"normal† to those with neurotic problems and even those suffering from psychosis (Snowdon, 2010. P.XXV1). Eysenck was also a critic see section on (Eysenck). However, Jung was unconcerned claiming that he â€Å"cannot experience himself as a scientific problem. Myth is more individual and expresses life more precisely than does science (Stevens. 2001. P.156) How might Jung’s Theory usefully help a client and determine therapeutic goals:- It is necessary to determine whether a person is primarily orientated toward their inner (introversion) or outer world (extraversion) and next to assess which are the dominant and auxillary psychological functions of the client. Jung said that people connect ideas, feelings, experiences and information by way of associations in the unconscious in such a way as to affect their behavior. These groupings he named as Complexes They may be organised around a particular person or object and the therapist may use this knowledge to bring to the forefront of the client’s consciousness a situation which they may be finding difficult to disengage from such as the case that Jung wrote of where a man who knew that he was suffering from an imaginary growth but could not stop himself from believing it. Although in todays world we have such tools as MRI’s and other techniques to help people see that their unconscious worries are unfounded, I still think that counseling and cognitive therapy can/may be appropriate. The therapeutic goal of Jungian therapy is to help the client reconcile unbalanced aspects of their personality which present in a number of differing ways of  Psychological disturbance.:-Examples include: extreme negativity, addictions,  degrees of paranoia, sudden religious conversion, inappropriate attachments to unsuitable partners, hysteria, mania, depression, hypochondria’s or schizoid personality traits ( as Jung himself had as a boy) By understanding his theory and how each type may present the therapist can help them unlock the shadow sides of their personality. It is a process in which the client is helped to come to terms with the place of self within their own world and also to help them see that they are part of a greater collective unconscious. Much of Jung’s work was about the interconnectedness of all people and cultures which in today’s world is a helpful to us. The use of appropriate assessment techniques can be invaluable in helping a therapist to develop the untapped potential within the individual. Jung was of the opinion that treatment along certain prescribed lines according to a certain school of thought does not always work. And finding about the person’s personality type should help a therapist to establish which treatment method should work best for that particular person. For some people it is feeling accepted by others in which case the person centred approach would be most appropriate whereas others are very goal oriented, not so much in touch with their feelings and like to work with targets and see results quickly. For such people the cognitive behaviour approach would be the most appropriate Further Jung believes that the opposite poles attract but at the same time will find themselves in conflict later on in a relationship. By helping the client become aware the therapist will be able to help the client realise what works and does not work in their relationship. People’s values, attitudes or beliefs are not part of a person’s psyche however personality can certainly contribute towards influencing these. Jung was convinced that our personalities never become stati so there is a potential for us to grow throughout our lives and we can never quite say that our growth has finished. Indeed I find myself on this journey of self discovery and am finding the real me as opposed to how others would like to view me. I am unearthing what drives me, what my purpose is and how I want  to get there. These wide possibilities are there also for each client when they come for therapy. The more the counsellor is able to learn about their self and promote growth the better the therapeutic relationship and the more progress the client can make. There might also be a breakthrough for clients who are not very happy in their jobs or for those who are not quite sure about the direction they want to follow in their career choices. Clients might therefore get an idea about the types of jobs that would suit their particular personality and that could signify another turning point in the counselling process. Learning about our personalities can certainly be very enriching but should not be used to make excuses for the behaviour we are not proud of. I myself have taken the Myers Brigg test (which includes an additional further two categories of preference and perceiving – which in turn multiplied by two Jung’s eight personality types to that of sixteen personality types) with a result of INFJ and learned that my first career preference would be a counselor and indeed that is exactly what I am at this moment trying to achieve and hope that I will become a proficient therapist. I found the test to be invaluable and I must stress that the personality type description fits me fully. I am very creative, practical and always on the lookout for new solutions and ideas. I have a strong desire to help people realise their potential. I am very empathetic and show great intuitive abilities. When I was at school other kids always wanted me to describe what a new teacher would be like and I never failed by just looking at her or him once in the corridor. I am aware that I enjoy spending time on my own to renew myself and in order to do that I like to unwind in a really peaceful place. Ever since I was small I never liked conflict and there always seemed a lot of it going around in my family. But I actually am happy to enter it to help resolve it. I certainly enjoy being active and look out for the next challenge. And perhaps some might find me stubborn if I am given advice as I tend to stick to my intuitive feelings. If my clients find out which personality type they are it might help them  make sense of things they did not even understand about themselves – helping them to see how they interact with others and how they view themselves. This essay has been an enlightening journey of discovery of not only Jung’s theory but thins I have discovered about myself on a personal level. I hope that when I eventually become a therapist I can use this skill and my clients can benefit in the same way I have. Conclusion Whilst Jung’s theories are widely used in psychodynamics and personality testing in todays world, it should be recognized that this theory about different types of human personalities is a psychological approach to growth and wholeness. The therapeutic goal of Jungarian therapy is to help the client reconcile unbalanced aspects of their personality which may present in a number of differing ways of psychological disturbances (mentioned above) and physical illness, and obsessions. I therefore feel that understanding Jung’s theory and how each type may present gives me as a therapist the ability to help the client gradually strip away the shadow side of their personality, the negative aspect that they will need to address. This will be a process of individuation in which the client is helped towards the conscious realization and fulfillment of their unique self and to help them see that they are a part of a greater collective unconscious. In conclusion, I agree that understanding personality types, whether it is Jung’s theory or Eysencks is very important in helping me as a therapist, and my client in reaching their goal/s. By my being aware of the strength of my clients psyche it could help me begin to work on weaker areas, therefore helping my client to find meaning within their own world and moving towards their true self. References Boeree G. (2006) Carl Jung 1875 – 1961 http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html Accessed 28/08/10 Cloniger S. C. ( 2000) Theories of personality: understanding Persons(3rd Ed) Engler, B. (1999)Personality theories, an introduction. Eysenck , H.J. (1982) Personality, genetics and behaviour: Selected papers. Eysenck, H. J. (1990). Biological dimensions of personality. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 244-276). Frager, R., & Fadiman, J. (2005). Excerpt from Personality and Personal Growth ( Fordam, F (1953) An introduction to Jung’s psychology.Baltimore. Penguin. In Engler, B. (1999)Personality theories, an introduction Furnam, A (1990) Can people accurately estimate their own personality test scores? European Journal of Personality, 4(4), 319-327 in Engler, B. (1999) Personality theories, an introduction.p87 (5th Ed) Jung C, (1933) Jung ‘Psychological Theory of Types’. Modern Man in Search of a Soul , p. 98 (cf. C.W., 6). http://www.cgjungpage.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=852&Itemid=41#Contents2 O’Roark, A.M. (1990). Comment on Cowan’s interpretation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Jung’s psychological functions.Journal of Personality Assessment , 58, 277-299 in Cloniger S. C. ( 2000) Theories of personality: understanding Persons Stevens, A. (1994a)Jung A Very Short Introduction. p38. Stevens, A. (1994b) Jung A Very Short Introduction. Ruth Snowden. The key ideas 2011 Ruth Snowden – Teach yourself Jung